SOCIALISM IN EUROPE AND THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

---

Overview

• Socialism seeks a just and equitable society.
• Industrialization led to socialism in Europe.
• Three Types of People : Liberals, Radicals and Conservatives 
• The Russian Revolution was complex, but socialism was a big factor.
• The Revolution of 1905.
• The February Revolution of 1917. 
• The October Revolution of 1917. 
• Stalin’s Policies. 

The European Society

• The European Society in the 18th and 19th Century has been divided into three groups of people:
  • The Liberals were those who wanted a representative government.
  • Radicals were those who wanted a government based on majority population.
  • Conservatives were those who wanted no change.

The Liberals

• Liberals wanted a nation which tolerated all religions.
• They opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers.
• They wanted to safeguard the rights of individuals against governments.
• They argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government.
• They believed in limited democracy, where only men of property had the vote.
• They did not want women to have the vote.

The Radicals

• Radicals wanted a government based on majority of the population.
• They supported women’s suffrage movements.
• They opposed the privileges of great landowners and wealthy factory owners.
• They were not against private property, but they disliked the concentration of property in the hands of a few.

The Conservatives

• Conservatives opposed radicals and liberals.
• They believed in respecting the past and bringing about change slowly.
• They accepted that some change was inevitable in the 19th century.

Industrial Revolution

• The Industrial Revolution led to social and economic changes.
• People moved to cities to work in factories.
• Working conditions in factories were poor.
• Unemployment was common.
• Housing and sanitation were problems.
• Liberals and radicals searched for solutions to these issues.

Liberals and Radicals

• Liberals and radicals believed in individual effort, labor, and enterprise.
• They believed that societies would develop if freedom of individuals was ensured, and the poor could labor.
• They opposed the privileges of the old aristocracy.
• Many working men and women rallied around liberal and radical groups and parties in the early nineteenth century.

Industrial Society & Social Change

• Nationalists, liberals, and radicals wanted revolutions to put an end to the kind of governments established in Europe in 1815.
• They wanted to create nations where all citizens would have equal rights.
• Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian nationalist, conspired with others to achieve this in Italy.
• His writings inspired nationalists elsewhere, including in India.

Socialism

• Socialism is a vision of how society should be structured.
• Socialists are against private property.
• They believe that private property is the root of all social ills.
• They believe that society should control property.
• They believe that this would lead to more attention being paid to collective social interests.

Socialism and Ideas

• Socialists had different visions of the future.
• Some believed in the idea of cooperatives.
• Robert Owen wanted to build a cooperative community called New Harmony in Indiana.
• Other socialists felt that cooperatives could not be built on a wide scale only through individual initiative.
• They demanded that governments encourage cooperatives.
• Louis Blanc wanted the government to encourage cooperatives and replace capitalist enterprises.
• These cooperatives were to be associations of people who produced goods together and divided the profits according to the work done by members.

Marx and Engels Contributions:

• Capitalist Society: Marx’s view on industrial society as capitalist.
• Worker Exploitation: Capitalists profiting from worker labor.
• Overthrow Capitalism: Marx’s call to dismantle capitalist system.
• Socialist Society: Constructing society with socially controlled property.
• Communist Vision: Marx’s belief in future communist society.
• Worker Triumph: Marx’s conviction in workers overcoming capitalists.

Support for Socialism

• 1870s: Spread of socialist ideas in Europe.
• Coordination: Formation of Second International.
• Associations Formed: Workers’ groups for better conditions.
• Goals: Improved living, working conditions.
• Activities: Funds, reduced working hours, voting rights.
• Germany: Associations worked with Social Democratic Party.
• 1905: Labour Party (UK), Socialist Party (France) formed.
• Government Success: Socialists didn’t govern till 1914.
• Influence: Shaped legislation, not in power.
• Governments: Conservatives, liberals, radicals in control

Russian Context: Russia was one of Least Industrialized European States

• October Revolution (1917): Socialists, led by Bolshevik Party, took control of the government in Russia.
• Background Events:
• Fall of Monarchy (February 1917): Overthrow of the Russian monarchy led to a provisional government taking power.
• October Events: Bolsheviks, under Vladimir Lenin, seized power from the provisional government in October 1917.
• Russian Revolution: Term used to encompass both the fall of the monarchy in February and the October Revolution.
• Unique Situation: Unlike other European countries, Russia experienced socialist takeover in 1917, leading to the establishment of the Soviet Union.

Russia in 1914

• 1914: Tsar Nicholas II ruled Russia and its empire.
• Territory: Included Moscow, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine, Belarus.
• Vast Empire: Extended to the Pacific, encompassing Central Asian states, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan.
• Religions: Majority practiced Russian Orthodox Christianity, with roots in Greek Orthodox Church.
• Diversity: Empire also had Catholics, Protestants, Muslims, and Buddhists.

Early 20th Century Russia

• 85% of people were farmers.
• High agricultural focus, unlike Europe.
• France and Germany: 40-50% in agriculture.
• Russia exported grain.

Industrialization:

• Industry concentrated in areas like St. Petersburg and Moscow.
• Mix of craftsmen and large factories.
• Expansion in the 1890s due to railways and foreign investment.
• Coal, iron, and steel production grew significantly.
• Factory workers and craftsmen were nearly equal in number by 1900s.

Industry Ownership

• Most industry owned by private industrialists.
• Government supervised factories for wages and work hours.
• Factory inspectors struggled to enforce rules.
• Working Conditions:
• Craft workshops: Up to 15-hour workdays.
• Factories: Generally, 10–12-hour workdays.
• Accommodation varied, from rooms to dorms.

Diverse Worker Backgrounds

• Workers from villages and cities.
• Different skill levels among workers.
• Metalworkers considered themselves elite.
• Gender diversity: 31% women by 1914.
• Gender and Wages:
• Women earned less (50-75% of men’s wages).
• Worker Divisions:
• Dress and manners showcased divisions.
• Few associations to aid unemployed workers.

Worker Unity and Strike

• Workers united in strikes against employers.
• Frequent strikes in textiles (1896-1897) and metal industries (1902).

Peasants and Land Ownership

• Peasants cultivated most land.
• Nobility, crown, and Orthodox Church owned large properties.
• Peasants divided, deeply religious, lacked respect for nobility.
• Peasant Unrest:
  • Peasants wanted nobles’ land, not respect.
  • Refused rent payment, sometimes killed landlords.
  • 1902: Large-scale unrest in south Russia.
  • 1905: Widespread incidents across Russia.

Peasant Land Management

• Russian peasants pooled land periodically.
• Commune (mir) divided land based on family needs.
• All political parties were illegal in Russia before 1914.
• Russian Social Democratic Workers Party founded in 1898 by socialists respecting Marx’s ideas.
• Operated as an illegal organization due to government policing.
• Established a newspaper, organized strikes, and mobilized workers.
• Some Russian socialists believed peasants, not workers, could drive the revolution due to their land customs.
• Socialist Revolutionary Party formed in 1900, focused on peasants’ rights and land transfer from nobles to peasants.
• Lenin disagreed with Socialist Revolutionaries, saw differentiation among peasants.
• Party divided on organization strategy: Lenin (Bolsheviks) favored disciplined, controlled membership; Mensheviks preferred openness like in Germany.
• Russia was an autocracy; Tsar had sole power, unlike European rulers.
• Liberals in Russia aimed to end Tsar’s unchecked power.
• 1905 revolution: Liberals, Social Democrats, Socialist Revolutionaries united for a constitution.
• Nationalists (like in Poland) and jadidists (advocating modernized Islam) also supported change.

Economic Crisis

• 1904: Tough year for Russian workers, 20% wage drop due to high prices.
• Workers’ associations grew.
• Assembly of Russian Workers started in 1904.
• Putilov Iron Works dismissals triggered industrial action.
• 110,000 St Petersburg workers struck for 8-hour day, higher wages, better conditions.

The Bloody Sunday

• Procession led by Father Gapon to Winter Palace attacked by police and Cossacks.
• Bloody Sunday: Over 100 workers killed, around 300 wounded.
• This event triggered the 1905 Revolution.
• Nationwide strikes followed; universities closed due to student protests for civil liberties.
• Middle-class professionals formed Union of Unions, demanded a constituent assembly.

What Followed?

• 1905 Revolution: Tsar allowed Duma, elected consultative Parliament.
• Unions, committees formed during revolution, went unofficial after 1905 due to legality.
• Tsar dismissed first and second Duma quickly to maintain authority.
• Third Duma packed with conservatives, excluded liberals and revolutionaries.

First World War

• 1914: War between two alliances – Central Powers (Germany, Austria, Turkey) vs. Allies (France, Britain, Russia, later Italy and Romania).
• Global conflict due to each country’s empire.
• Known as the First World War.

World War 1 and Russia

• Initially, WWI garnered support for Tsar Nicholas II in Russia.
• Over time, Tsar’s refusal to involve Duma parties led to dwindling support.
• High anti-German sentiment: St Petersburg renamed Petrograd.
• Tsarina’s German origin and Rasputin’s influence made autocracy unpopular.

Impacts of World War 1

• WWI’s impact differed on the eastern and western fronts.
• Russia faced defeats, massive casualties (7 million by 1917), and army retreats.
• Russian army destroyed crops and buildings, causing over 3 million refugees.
• War hurt industry, railways broke down, labor shortages emerged.
• Essential workshops shut down, food scarcity in cities, bread riots in 1916.

February Revolution of 1917

• Winter 1917, Petrograd faced grim conditions; divisions evident between workers’ quarters and fashionable areas.
• Food shortages in workers’ areas, harsh winter; tensions grew.
• On 22 February, factory lockout triggered sympathy strikes, led by women, marked International Women’s Day.
• Demonstrators moved from factories to Nevsky Prospekt.
• No organized party initially, but workers surrounded fashionable areas, government-imposed curfew.
• Demonstrations continued, cavalry and police called in, but they refused to fire on demonstrators.
• Regiments mutinied, formed Petrograd Soviet, demanding change.
• Tsar abdicated on 2 March following military advice.
• Provisional Government formed by Soviet and Duma leaders.
• Petrograd February Revolution led to monarchy downfall.

After February

• Provisional Gov: Army, landowners, industrialists; liberals, socialists aimed for elected rule.
• Public meeting restrictions lifted; ‘Soviets’ formed nationwide.
• Lenin’s ‘April Theses’: end war, land to peasants, bank nationalization.
• Initially surprising for Bolsheviks, but attitudes changed.
• Summer: Worker movement spread, factory committees, trade unions grew.
• Soldiers’ committees formed; All Russian Congress of Soviets.
• Gov’s power waned, Bolshevik influence rose.
• July: Repressed Bolshevik demonstrations, leaders hid.
• Peasants, Socialist Revolutionaries sought land redistribution, land committees formed.
• Peasants seized land, July-September 1917.

The October Revolution of 1917

• Conflict grew between Provisional Gov and Bolsheviks.
• Lenin feared dictatorship; planned uprising in September.
• Oct 16: Petrograd Soviet and Bolsheviks supported power takeover.
• Trotsky’s committee organized seizure secretly.
• Oct 24: Uprising began, key locations seized.
• Winter Palace shelled, city under committee’s control.
• Other cities saw uprisings; Moscow heavy fighting.
• By December, Bolsheviks ruled Moscow-Petrograd

After October

• Bolsheviks strongly against private property.
• Industry, banks nationalized in Nov 1917.
• Land declared social property; peasants seized nobility’s land.
• Cities: Large houses partitioned; old aristocratic titles banned.
• New army and officials’ uniforms introduced, including Soviet hat (budenovka), chosen in 1918 competition.
• Bolsheviks renamed Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik).
• Nov 1917: Constituent Assembly elections, no majority for Bolsheviks.
• Jan 1918: Assembly rejected, dismissed by Lenin.
• Bolsheviks favored All Russian Congress of Soviets, more democratic.
• Mar 1918: Peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk.
• Years after: One-party state, Bolsheviks only in Congress of Soviets.
• Trade unions under party control; secret police punished critics.
• Party attracted young artists, experiments in arts and architecture.
• Disillusionment due to Party’s censorship.

The Civil War

• Bolshevik Land Redistribution:
  • Bolsheviks ordered land redistribution.
  • Russian army began breaking up as soldiers, mainly peasants, left for home for land redistribution.
• Opposition to Bolsheviks:
  • Non-Bolshevik groups (socialists, liberals, autocracy supporters) condemned Bolshevik uprising.
  • Leaders of these groups moved to south Russia and organized troops against the Bolsheviks.

Emergence of “Reds,” “Greens,” and “Whites”:

• During 1918-1919, “Reds” (Bolsheviks), “Greens” (Socialist Revolutionaries), and “Whites” (pro-Tsarists) controlled much of Russia.
• Backed by foreign forces (French, American, British, Japanese) concerned about socialism’s growth.
• Civil War Impact:
  • Civil war led to looting, banditry, and famine.
  • Private property supporters among “Whites” clashed with peasants who took land, losing popular support.

The Civil War

• Bolshevik Success and Confusion:
  • By January 1920, Bolsheviks controlled most of the former Russian empire.
  • Cooperation with non-Russian nationalities and Muslim jadidists contributed to their success.
• National Autonomy in the USSR:
  • Bolsheviks created the Soviet Union (USSR) from the Russian empire in 1922.
  • Non-Russian nationalities granted political autonomy in the USSR.
• Challenges with Autonomy:
  • Autonomy combined with unpopular policies imposed by Bolsheviks.
  • Attempts to win over nationalities only partly successful due to policies like discouraging nomadism.

Making A Socialist Society

• Bolshevik’s Civil War Measures:
  • Industries, banks nationalized amidst civil war.
  • Peasants allowed to cultivate socialized land.
  • Confiscated land showcased collective effort.
• Centralized Planning and Five Year Plans:
  • Centralized planning introduced; economy assessed.
  • Five Year Plans crafted, setting targets.
  • Fixed prices ignited industrial growth in first two Plans.
• Economic Growth and Industrial Rise:
  • Centralized planning spurred economic growth.
  • 1929-1933: Industrial production doubled (oil, coal, steel).
  • Birth of new factory cities, prosperity’s theme.
• Challenges of Swift Construction:
  • Rapid construction, poor working conditions.
  • Magnitogorsk steel plant in 3 years.
  • 550 work stoppages in first year, worker’s plight unveiled.
• Living Quarters and Harsh Realities:
  • In extreme cold, fourth-floor dash for toilets.
  • Worker’s lives, stark challenges told.
• Education and Social Support:
  • Extended schooling, workers and peasants embrace.
  • Factory daycares for women’s kids, a nurturing space.
• Healthcare and Model Living:
  • Cheap public health care, a national care.
  • Model living quarters, workers well-being flair.
• Uneven Impact and Limited Resources:
  • Uneven effect, resources restrained.
  • Government’s limits, progress contained.

Stalinism and Collectivization

• Early Planned Economy Challenges:
  • Collectivisation of agriculture linked to early Planned Economy.
  • Towns faced grain shortage in 1927-1928.
• Stalin’s Measures:
  • Stalin took strong actions against hoarding.
  • Introduced grain collections, targeting rich peasants.
• Collectivization Decision:
  • Small peasant farms couldn’t modernize, leading to grain shortages.
  • Stalin’s plan: Eliminate kulaks, establish state-controlled large farms.
• Collective Farms Imposed:
  • From 1929, all peasants forced into collective farms.
  • Land and tools to collective farms, profits shared.
• Resistance and Punishment:
  • Peasants resisted collectivization, lost livestock.
  • Resistance met with severe punishment.
• Challenges and Devastation:
  • Production didn’t immediately increase.
  • Bad harvests (1930-1933) caused a devastating famine, over 4 million deaths.
• Critics and Accusations:
  • Party critics voiced concerns over industrial confusion and collectivisation fallout.
  • Stalin labeled critics as socialists’ foes, alleging conspiracy.
• Wide Accusations and Imprisonment:
  • Accusations spread countrywide, by 1939.
  • Over 2 million imprisoned or in labor camps.
• Innocence and Silence:
  • Many falsely accused, lacked advocates.
  • Silence prevailed, injustice unfolded.
• False Confessions and Tragic End:
  • Torture led to false confessions, talented professionals included.
  • Executions followed, casting shadows on the era.

Global Influence of the Russian Revolution

• Global Socialist Movement:
  • Existing socialist parties in Europe questioned Bolshevik power.
  • Formation of communist parties worldwide, inspired by workers’ state concept.
• Communist Influence and Education:
  • Bolsheviks urged colonial nations to follow their lead.
  • Conference of the Peoples of the East and Comintern fostered international unity.
  • Non-Russians joined, received education at Communist University.
• USSR’s Global Impact:
  • USSR’s influence soared by Second World War.
  • Became a symbol of socialism worldwide.
• Diverse Rethinking of Socialism:
  • Across nations, socialism’s ideas reconsidered in varied ways.